A parabolic dish microphone is essentially a mirror telescope for sound. A parabolic surface has the interesting property that all sound waves that propagate parallel its central axis travel the same distance to get to its focus. That means that when you aim the dish at a distant sound source, all of the sound from that object bounces off the dish and converges toward the focus in phase--with its pressure peaks and troughs synchronized so that they work together to make the loudest possible sound vibrations. The sound is thus enhanced at the focus, but only if it originated from the source you're aiming at. Sound from other sources misses the focus. If you put a sensitive microphone in the parabolic dish's focus, you'll hear the sound from the distant object loud and clear.

When you view something in a flat mirror, you are looking at a virtual image of the object and this virtual image isn't located on the surface of the mirror. Instead, it's located on the far side of the mirror at a distance exactly equal to the distance from the mirror to the actual object. In effect, you are looking through a window into a "looking glass world" and seeing a distant object on the other side of that window. The reflected light reaching your eyes has all the optical characteristics of having come the full distance from that virtual image, through the mirror, to your eyes. The total distance between what you are seeing and your eyes is the sum of the distance from your eyes to the mirror plus the distance from the mirror to the object. That's why you must use your distance glasses to see most reflected objects clearly. Even when you observe your own face, you are seeing it as though it were located twice as far from you as the distance from your face to the mirror.

A parabolic microphone is effectively a mirror telescope for sound. When sound waves strike the dense, rigid surface of the parabolic dish, they partially reflect. This reflection occurs because sound travels much faster in a rigid solid than in the air and changes in the speed of a wave cause part of it to reflect. In this case, the reflection redirects the sound waves inward because the reflecting surface is curved and the sound waves form a real image of the distant source that produced them. While you can't see this real image with your eyes, you can hear it with your ears. If you were to mount a large parabolic dish so that it faced horizontally and then moved your ear around in the focal plane of the dish, you would hear sounds coming from various objects far away from the dish. The same effect occurs for light when it bounces off a curved mirror--a real mirror telescope. A TV satellite dish is the same thing, but this time for microwaves! In all three cases, the real images that form are upside down. To make a parabolic microphone, you normally put a conventional microphone in the central focus of a parabolic surface so that the microphone receives all the sound coming from objects directly in front of the parabola. To listen to different objects, you simply steer the parabola from one to the other. This is exactly what a TV satellite dish does when it wants to "listen" to a different satellite--it steers from one to the other.

The earth's atmosphere has poor optical properties that seriously diminish the resolving powers of even the finest earth-based telescopes. You can see these optical problems by watching the warm air rise above a radiator or hot pavement on a summer day. The little swirls and eddies of heated air distort the scenery beyond them. Earth-based telescopes have to look at the stars through several miles of swirling, inhomogeneous atmosphere and they struggle to compensate for the imaging problems this air causes. Most world-class telescopes are located on mountaintops, far from lighted urban centers and away from humidity and clouds. But even the sky above these mountaintop observatories causes problems. By putting Hubble in space, they got rid of all atmospheric problems--air turbulence, clouds, and nearby lighting. They also made it possible for Hubble to operate around the clock by eliminating the blue sky that blinds telescopes during the day.

Suppose that you have a white card with what appears to be a black line on it. That line might actually be two very closely spaced lines; you're not sure. To find out, you focus a beam of light to the smallest possible spot and then move this tiny spot of light across the line. You realize that if there are two separate lines on the card, then the spot of light should cross first one line and then the other, and you should see two changes in the reflected light rather than just one.

It turns out that, however, that no matter how hard you try you can't focus the light to a spot much smaller than the wavelength of the light. An equivalent problem would occur if you tried to use water waves to create a narrow spike of water above the surface--no matter how you worked with the water waves, you would be unable to make them to merge together into a spike that's much narrower than the wavelength of the water waves. Because of his limitation, your spot of light can't be much smaller than the wavelength of light and you can't distinguish between one line or two if those lines are much closer than a wavelength of the light you're using. Since visible light has a wavelength of 400 nanometers or more, you can't use it to resolve details much smaller than 400 nanometers wide.

Actually, there is an exception to this general rule--near-field scanning optical microscopy or NSOM uses light emerging from the tiny tip of a glass fiber to resolve details far smaller than the light's wavelength. In NSOM, the resolution is determined by the tip size and not the light's wavelength.

Ultraviolet light isused in microscopy to achieve higher resolution than can be obtained with visible microscopes. But beyond ultraviolet light comes X-rays and it's difficult to build imaging optics for X-rays. There are some X-ray microscopes, but they aren't nearly as common and practical as electron microscopes. The electrons in electron microscopes have very short wavelengths (atomic and subatomic length scales) and yet electron optics are easy to build. So while very short wavelength electromagnetic waves can be made, they're just not practical for microscopy.

A sound dish is actually a mirror telescope for sound. When sound waves from a distant source encounter a rigid parabolic surface, they reflect in such a way that they focus to a point. If you put a microphone at that point, it will detect the sound waves from the distant source. You can see this focusing effect by drawing a parabola on a sheet of paper and directing parallel lines--the sound waves from the distant source--toward the parabola. If you reflect each line in a mirror-like fashion from the surface it hits, you'll find that all the reflected lines pass through a single point as they move away from the parabola.

Normal television broadcasts use electromagnetic waves with relatively low frequencies and long wavelengths while satellite broadcasts use waves with relatively high frequencies and short wavelengths. The short wavelength waves from a satellite are known as microwaves while the longer wavelength waves from a normal broadcast station are generally known as radio waves. Since the optimal antenna size for receiving a particular electromagnetic wave is proportional to the wavelength of the wave, you need a smaller antenna to receive the microwaves from a satellite than you do the radio waves from a normal television station. However, the microwaves from a satellite are much weaker than the radio waves from a nearby television station and a small microwave antenna isn't likely to absorb enough of them to produce a useable signal.

The solution to this dilemma is to concentrate the microwaves from a satellite with the help of an optical imaging system. Although it may not look like one, a satellite dish is really a carefully shaped mirror telescope. Just as the curved mirror of the Hubble space telescope can bring light from a distant star to a focus on an optical image sensor, so the curved wire mesh of a satellite dish can bring microwaves from a distant satellite to focus on a small microwave antenna. This microwave antenna sits at the focus of the satellite dish and absorbs the microwaves that the dish collects. The dish's imaging behavior also ensures that microwaves from only one satellite are brought to a focus on the microwave antenna. You must redirect the dish or move the antenna in order to switch from one satellite to another.

Since the microwaves used in satellite transmissions have wavelengths of several centimeters or more, they can't pass through holes in a conducting material if those holes are less than about a centimeter in diameter. As a result, chicken wire reflects microwaves as though it were a sheet of solid metal. You can form a dish antenna by bending chicken wire into a parabola. When the microwaves from the satellite strike this parabolic reflecting surface, they are brought together to a focus at a particular point above the center of the parabola. If you then place a microwave receiving device at this focal point, you'll be able to watch satellite TV.

If you want to do this, you should make a cardboard template for the parabolic shape and bend the chicken wire carefully to match this template. The more highly curved the parabola, the closer the focus will be to the dish's surface. You should aim this dish directly at the satellite and put the receiving unit at the focus of the parabola, above its center. However, you'll have difficulty building the receiving device yourself, although there are probably kits you can buy. The receiver should have a tiny antenna, a microwave amplifier, and a frequency down-converter, all together on a single circuit board. Working with microwave-frequency electronics is difficult because the wave character of the electric signals is painfully obvious in those circuits. Designing microwave circuits is a job for experts. In short, you can build the dish, but you should buy the receiver that sits at the center of the dish.

In forming a real image, a camera lens behaves symmetrically, taking light reaching it from above its central axis and projecting that light onto a spot below its central axis. But in forming a virtual image, a magnifying lens merely redirects the light subtly to have it appear to come from a point nearer or farther than the original object. You still see the object as it was (right-side up) but moved toward you or away from you.

A virtual image is always located behind the optic (lens or mirror) that creates it. Thus when you look into a magnifying glass, eyepiece, or a make-up mirror, you see light that appears to come from beyond the optic that creates the image. You can't touch the virtual image or put your hand in the pattern of light that you seem to see. The virtual image can appear to come from just behind the optic or from a great distance behind that optic. It depends on how things are arranged. As you lift a magnifying glass off the surface of a newspaper, the virtual image of the newspaper starts just behind the glass and slowly moves back away from the glass. As the distance between the magnifying glass and newspaper approach the magnifying glass's focal length, the virtual image moves away to an infinite distance behind the glass. After that, there is no longer a virtual image at all. Instead, a real image begins to appear on the other side of the magnifying glass.

A spoon forms an inverted real image of you when you look into the concave (hollow) side. This real image is located a few centimeters in front of the spoon, where you can touch it with your finger or insert a small piece of paper into it. Try it, you will see the pattern of light appear on the paper sliver. A spoon forms a right side up virtual image of you when you look into the convex (bowed outward) side. This virtual image is located a few centimeters behind the spoon. You appear very small because it is a small virtual image that you are looking at. You cannot touch this virtual image.

The lenses that they place over your eye create virtual images that are closer or farther from your eyes than the object itself. Some lenses are converging (bending rays of light together) and these "magnifying" lenses form virtual images that are located farther away from you than the object itself. If you are farsighted (seeing distant objects well) you will be able to see a nearby object well through such glasses because you will see that object as more distant. Other lenses are diverging (bending rays of light apart) and these "demagnifying" lenses form virtual images that are located nearer to you than the object itself. If you are nearsighted (seeing nearby objects well) you will be able to see a distant object well through such glasses because you will see that object as nearer. If you vision is particularly poor, the lenses you need may not form virtual images at all but will still correct your vision. In that case, you do better to think of these lenses as joining together with the lens of your eye to form a single, image-forming lens. That combined lens works to form a real image on your retina. The other complication with eyeglasses is cylindrical correction (correction for astigmatism). Some people have lenses in their eyes that are not symmetrical and focus light differently up and down or left and right. A water glass is a cylindrical lens, focusing light horizontally but not vertically. To compensate for this cylindrical character, some eyeglasses have the opposite cylindrical character cut into them and rotated into the proper position.

I'm not sure what effect you are observing. I do not see it myself. However, different types of lenses behave differently, so my nearsighted correction may not behave the same way yours does. There is certainly a reflection problem in some glasses. Although the main beams of light passing through the lens are handled well, internal reflections or reflections from behind the lens are not handled properly. They can form strange patterns of light on your retina, such as the light star you mention.

You could place the magnifying glass at one of two spots: at the entrance to the telescope or at the eyepiece of the telescope. If you put it at the entrance, it would bend the light before it had a chance to reach the main optic for the telescope. The effect would be to increase the light bending ability of the main optic and reduce the lens's focal length. This change would make it difficult to focus the telescope on distant objects, such as stars. The images of these distant objects would form too close to the main optic and you would have trouble observing them through the telescope's eyepiece. But very nearby objects form real images farther from the main optic. The magnifying glass would help the main optic form real images of very nearby objects. It would act as a close-up lens. That is what close-up lens attachments for cameras or even cheap reading glasses do: they help the camera lens or your eye form an image of very nearby objects. On the other hand, a magnifying glass held over the eyepiece of a telescope would increase the power of the telescope. You would have to adjust the focus of the telescope because the added magnifying glass will reduce the effective focal length of the eyepiece. The new super eyepiece will have to be placed closer to the real image formed by the main optic of the telescope. When it is place properly, it will give you a very highly magnified view of that real image, so you will see a highly magnified view of the stars.

A real image is a pattern of light in space that you can touch or put a piece of paper in. When you insert the paper in this light pattern, it appears just like the scene that created it, although it is typically flipped upside-down. A virtual image is an image that you cannot touch. As you look into the optic that creates this virtual image, you can see the image as though it were a pattern of light in space, but that pattern of light is located on the opposite side of the optic, where you cannot touch it. Subsequent optical devices (including the lens of your eye) can study this virtual image and form new images of it, but you can't put a piece of film in the virtual image itself.

The object distance is simply a measure of the distance between the object and the lens. The image distance is a measure of the distance between the lens and the image that it forms. A positive number for the image distance means that a real image forms. A negative number for the image distance means that a virtual image forms (on the same side of the lens as the object). The image distance depends on both the object distance and the focal length of the lens. The focal length of the lens is a characteristic of the lens itself and doesn't change as the object and image distances change. The focal length is equal to the image distance when the object is very, very distant (e.g. a star). A positive focal length lens (a converging lens) forms a real image of the star at a distance from the lens equal to its focal length. A negative focal length lens (a diverging lens) forms a virtual image of the star at a distance from the lens equal to its focal length.

The mirror of the Hubble space telescope was ground with the aid of a flawed measuring device. Although the mirror was perfectly ground, it was given the wrong curvature and thus did not form a clear image at its focus. Light from one star that hit different points on the mirror did not converge to a single point on the imaging chip. To correct for this problem, the astronauts inserted a corrective optic into the path of the light. This refractive lens compensates for the incorrect convergence of the light so that it reaches a single point on the imaging chip. However, because it is a refractive optic, it cannot pass all wavelengths of light. Any light that is absorbed by the refractive optic is no longer measurable with the telescope.

When I sent laser light through a fine screen, it formed an interesting diffraction pattern on a distant wall. The holes in the screen were small, but not nearly as small as a wavelength of light. The light had no trouble going through these holes, but it did suffer diffraction effects. Because the wave passed through many separate holes, these waves interfered with one another and created the complicated pattern on the wall.